The life-stage nutrition concept recognises the need for dietary adjustment as pets age ( FEDIAF , 2021 ). Feeding below or above an optimal nutrient range can have a negative effect on biological performance , health and life expectancy ( Pet Nutrition Alliance , 2017 ). Therefore , a diet should maintain a lean body condition and meet the individual needs of the animal – taking into consideration the species , age and physiological status , and the reduction in disease-risk factors . A one-size-fitsall approach is not appropriate , and diets labelled ‘ for all life stages ’ are formulated for reproduction and growth .
Continued expansion of the pet food market may prohibit thorough knowledge of every available diet , but the veterinary healthcare team should at least be able to provide advice on basic and life-stage nutritional requirements .
Nutritional assessment
Regardless of age and life stage , a nutritional assessment should be conducted on every dog and cat at every visit to the veterinary practice and is something in which pet owners should be actively involved .
In 2011 , the World Small Animal Veterinary Association ( WSAVA ) Global Nutrition Committee launched Nutritional Assessment Guidelines for Dogs and Cats to help the veterinary healthcare team and pet owners ensure that dogs and cats receive optimal nutrition tailored to their needs ( Freeman et al ., 2011 ). These guidelines provide a framework for the veterinary healthcare team to assist them in making a nutritional assessment , and specific nutritional recommendations , for every patient at every visit ( Figure 1 ).
An initial screening evaluation involves the review and evaluation of animal-specific factors , diet-specific factors , feeding management and environmental factors . If any nutrition-related risk factors are identified , a follow-up extended evaluation must be conducted , a framework for which is published online ( AAHA , 2010 ). Life stage may influence the approach taken to conducting a nutritional assessment of a dog or cat , with specific considerations for each stage outlined by the American Animal Hospital Association ( AAHA , 2021a ; AAHA , 2021b ).
While awareness of the concept of nutritional assessment is apparent , consistent implementation of this in practice is lacking ( Lumbis & De Scally , 2020 ). The veterinary consultation is identified as a primary contact point for nutritional discussion with a client ( Lumbis & de Scally , 2020 ), yet nutrition is not discussed at most veterinary appointments ( Bergler et al ., 2016 ; Morgan et al ., 2017 ). A reported 57 – 90 % of pet owners believe a nutritional recommendation from the veterinary healthcare team to be important , but only 15 – 23 % perceive they have received one ( AAHA , 2003 ; Flocke et al ., 2013 ). Teaching owners how to assess their pet ’ s body condition and muscle condition accurately and objectively , alongside other important factors , is crucial to the early detection of secondary health conditions in all life stages .
A consistent and detailed approach , involving all members of the veterinary healthcare team , is fundamental to effective nutritional assessment and the provision of dietary recommendations and protocols . Identification , training and utilisation of a nutrition “ champion ” can further promote the inclusion of nutrition as a standard component of patient care , and help reinforce good nutritional practice throughout the veterinary clinic ( Creevy et al ., 2019 ). A wide range of non-branded practical aids have been developed by the WSAVA for the veterinary healthcare team , to help address nutrition at every patient visit and make nutritional assessment and recommendations more efficient . Non-branded educational materials are also available for pet owners ( WSAVA , 2021 ). Diet choice should maximise longevity and quality of life , and contain the recommended nutrient levels for the life stage and lifestyle of the pet .
Feeding during adulthood
The adult life stage begins once animals have reached maturity . For cats and small- to medium-sized dogs , this is generally around 12 months of age , but can be from 18 to 24 months in large and giant breeds of dog . Cats and dogs should be fed a complete and nutritionally formulated diet that will meet the appropriate nutritional requirements for adult life stage and individual lifestyle , and also maintain a lean body condition . The latter has proven benefits in dogs , including improved longevity and quality of life ( Kealy et al ., 2002 ; Salt et al ., 2019 ) and is surmised to have similar health benefits in cats ( Fascetti & Delaney , 2012 ).
Routine supplementation is not required , and treats should be limited to less than 10 % of daily calorific intake ( Freeman et al ., 2011 ). The breed and size of pet should be evaluated for targeted and precise nutrition , along with the identification of an optimal weight range , body condition and muscle condition ( Creevy et al ., 2019 ). Obesity is an inflammatory condition resulting in oxidative stress and secondary health conditions , the prevalence of which is rising at an alarming rate . Each unit increase above ideal ( a score of 5 ) on a 9-point body condition score ( BCS ) equates to 10 – 15 % excess bodyweight . Therefore , regardless of age , a weight-loss programme should be instigated in animals with a BCS over 5 . Similarly , animals with a belowideal BCS , and those with an unintentional weight loss of 10 % or more , should be investigated as a priority .
Where appropriate , adult maintenance diets formulated for neutered animals , the prevention of weight gain , and canine work and performance should be recommended . Providing ongoing advice to owners regarding enrichment , play and exercise is also key ( Quimby et al ., 2021 ). Speciesspecific key nutritional factors and energy requirements of adult cats and dogs can be found , respectively , in Table 2 and Table 3 ( overleaf ). Predictions of energy requirements that consider husbandry , neuter status and , possibly , activity level may be more accurate than those based on bodyweight and age alone ( Bermingham et al ., 2010 ; Bermingham et al ., 2014 ).
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