Plus-Hex CLINICAL
Introduction
The global One Health integrated approach to the health of humans, animals and ecosystems has become more commonly accepted in the veterinary profession over the past decade. The concept identifies a triad of disciplines that are increasingly interacting and / or conflicting with each other: animal health, human health and environmental health [ 1 ]( Figure 1). any potential impact and protect populations against EIDs [ 4 ]. Similarly, the potential movement and transmission of pathogens by humans should also be monitored as we move around the world, both as individuals and at a population level [ 5 ]; for example, travelling for work or recreation, or in response to war or natural disasters.
An additional consideration, which is now well documented and researched, is the development of antimicrobial resistance( AMR) among groups of pathogens against which the antimicrobials were previously effective [ 6, 7 ]. Antimicrobial stewardship plans, amnesty programmes and‘ appropriate use’ schemes can be beneficial when adopted and promoted by the veterinary and medical professions, and should be encouraged. They play a vital role in helping to counter the issue of AMR, particularly given that the development of novel treatments is slow or even at a standstill [ 8 ].
Environmental health
Figure 1. The triad of inter-related disciplines at the core of the One Health approach.
With rapid changes in populations and their geographical distribution, as well as an altering global climate, there are increasing opportunities for interactions within the triad and for potential health-related events across species and populations, highlighting the pertinence of the One Health approach.
The Covid-19 pandemic highlighted the vital need to respond to threats around emerging infectious diseases( EIDs) that compromise the health of humans, domesticated animals and wildlife [ 2 ]. These include H5N1 avian influenza, SARS-CoV-2, MERS, mpox and Ebola, among many others. There is also a need for the veterinary profession to recognise and highlight its role in human health and safety, as well as in animal health. Adaptations, such as responsible and sustainable working practices, can be implemented to help reduce the risk of damage to the environment [ 3 ] and the spread of disease.
Global environmental changes can also influence the movement of vectors of viral, bacterial, parasitic and protozoal infectious agents, which could impact on the health of individuals, populations and ecosystems. Risks include zoonotic disease transfer [ 2 ]( from animals to humans) and anthroponotic disease transfer( from humans to animals, also known as‘ reverse zoonosis’).
As climates around the world change in response to global warming and species adapt, it is vital that the natural movement of vectors is monitored to mitigate
Although there are numerous benefits of globalisation, there are also myriad risks associated with the movement of animals and humans from country to country, and interactions between evolving ecosystems. New pathogens can emerge where humans, wildlife and domesticated animals intersect [ 9 ], and faster and more frequent global movement allows disease to spread further and more rapidly. This risk can be compounded when vectors reach areas of high population density where exposure has not previously been observed, leading to endemic disease outbreaks.
Local effects, such as urbanisation, can increase human – wildlife contact, which can also cause disease spread [ 10 ]. Deforestation, too, can present similar problems, where localised populations of disease hosts or vectors were once confined to the forest but are forced to move around and / or interact with other species, such as humans. They then carry the disease to other areas and populations, potentially causing EID events on a much wider scale [ 11 ].
The health of the environment is further affected by intensive agriculture and farming, which has led to the loss of natural habitats and the segmentation of ecosystems, leading to fragmented populations. Additional damage is caused by pollution and invasive and intensive agriculture and farming methods, all of which can contribute to environmental toxicity [ 12 ] and may also be a factor in rising global temperatures and climate change.
Climate change can have numerous effects on disease emergence. It may lead to new disease patterns, cause changes in natural and farmed landscapes, affect the interplay between hosts, pathogens and the environment, prompt changes in human dynamics, and has the potential to affect pathogen adaptation [ 13 ].
Volume 41( 2) • April 2026
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