Antibiosis is recommended for 2 weeks post amputation , and up to 6 weeks in cases of open fractures [ 10 ] . Common antibiotics of choice in amphibians include enrofloxacin , due to its broadspectrum nature ( 5 – 10 mg / kg orally , subcutaneously , IM or topically every 24 hours [ 22 ] ), and ceftazidime ( 20 mg / kg subcutaneously , IM or intravenously every 48 – 72 hours [ 9 ] ).
Anaesthetic induction can be performed in several ways , including the use of anaesthetic gases ( isoflurane and sevoflurane ) inhalationally , or topically , mixed with water-based lubricant . Chai [ 8 ] notes the use of isoflurane topically at a dose of 0.01 – 0.06 ml / g , 2 – 3 ml / l in a bath , or inhalationally at 5 % in 100 % oxygen . Stone et al . [ 23 ] reported loss of righting reflex in cane toads with the use of a mixture of sevoflurane and lubricant at a dose of 37.5 µ g / g applied topically . This method may not be advisable due to health and safety concerns [ 22 ] . Topical and inhalational administration of these gases can be irritant , and smaller or more fragile urodeles species ( salamanders ) or caecilians ( limbless snake-or worm-like amphibians ) may sustain severe skin damage during gas chamber induction as a consequence [ 24 ] .
Girling [ 24 ] recommends benzocaine for anaesthetising a variety of adult amphibians , as a solution of 0.2 – 0.3 mg / l of water . The benzocaine may be dissolved in a small volume of ethanol before being added to the water , although buffering to correct the acidification may be required . Recovery occurs up to 60 min after rinsing with benzocaine-free water .
Tricaine methosulphate ( MS-222 ) mixed with a buffer and water can be made to the appropriate concentration for induction of anaesthesia . Chai [ 8 ] recommends a concentration of 1 g / l for use in adult frogs and toads . Induction time is variable , and recovery is usually achieved 30 – 90 min after removal from the anaesthetic solution . Girling [ 24 ] suggests a concentration of 1 – 2 g / l for most frogs and urodeles , although up to 3 g / l may be required for toads [ 24 , 25 ] .
Alfaxalone can also be used in a water bath ( 5 mg / l ), although this is often inadequate for anaesthetising terrestrial species [ 22 ] . Similarly , when observing the effects of alfaxalone administered IM to frog and toad patients , the drug was not found to reliably induce a surgical plane of anaesthesia [ 26 ] .
Table 1 . Medication used for the toad patient in this report .
Drug Dose administered Comments Analgesia Meloxicam
Antibiotics Enrofloxacin
0.4 mg / kg , intramuscularly once every 24 hours
0.2 – 0.4 mg / kg , intramuscularly or orally , once daily [ 5 , 22 ]
10 mg / kg , intramuscularly once every 24 hours
5 – 10 mg / kg , orally , subcutaneously , intramuscularly or topically once daily
Analgesic effects are not well documented in amphibians [ 19 ]
Evidence of anti-inflammatory effects [ 19 ]
Can be an irritant ; dilution is recommended if administered topically [ 9 , 22 ]
Induction of anaesthesia Sevoflurane
Topical wound treatment
Animal placed in an airtight bag filled with oxygen and 8 % sevoflurane gas
Transdermally when mixed with lubrication
Gaseous anaesthesia successfully achieves a surgical plane of anaesthesia in amphibians via the inhalational route [ 23 , 27 , 28 ] . It can also be administered transdermally
[ 23 , 27 , 28 ] mixed with a water-based lubricant
Orabase |
Applied topically as required |
Provides a protective film layer over the wound . Added protection creates a barrier against debris and infection , enabling the introduction of a more naturalistic environment during the early stages of healing |
Care is advised with more recent preparations , as benzocaine is often a component ; this is absorbed systemically and can accumulate to cause fatal toxicity [ 10 ]
54 Veterinary Nursing Journal